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</li>
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<a href="#conditional-ternary-operator" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Conditional Ternary Operator
</span>
</a>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#bitwise-operators" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Bitwise Operators
</span>
</a>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#compound-assignment-operators" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Compound Assignment Operators
</span>
</a>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#operator-precedence" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Operator Precedence
</span>
</a>
</li>
</ul>
</nav>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#common-functions" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Common Functions
</span>
</a>
<nav class="md-nav" aria-label="Common Functions">
<ul class="md-nav__list">
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#mathematical-functions" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Mathematical Functions
</span>
</a>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#character-functions" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Character Functions
</span>
</a>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#string-functions" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
String Functions
</span>
</a>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#string-conversion" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
String Conversion
</span>
</a>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#string-methods" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
String Methods
</span>
</a>
</li>
</ul>
</nav>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#decision-statements" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Decision Statements
</span>
</a>
<nav class="md-nav" aria-label="Decision Statements">
<ul class="md-nav__list">
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#if-statements" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
If Statements
</span>
</a>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#switch" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Switch
</span>
</a>
</li>
</ul>
</nav>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#loop-statements" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Loop Statements
</span>
</a>
<nav class="md-nav" aria-label="Loop Statements">
<ul class="md-nav__list">
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#while-loop" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
While Loop
</span>
</a>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#do-while" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Do While
</span>
</a>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#for-loop" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
For Loop
</span>
</a>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#break-statement" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Break Statement
</span>
</a>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#continue-statement" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Continue Statement
</span>
</a>
</li>
</ul>
</nav>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#functions" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Functions
</span>
</a>
<nav class="md-nav" aria-label="Functions">
<ul class="md-nav__list">
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#arguments-passed-by-reference-without-pointers" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Arguments passed by reference without pointers
</span>
</a>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#arguments-passed-by-reference-with-pointers" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Arguments passed by reference with pointers
</span>
</a>
</li>
</ul>
</nav>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#arrays" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Arrays
</span>
</a>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#array-as-function-parameter" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Array as function parameter
</span>
</a>
<nav class="md-nav" aria-label="Array as function parameter">
<ul class="md-nav__list">
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#multi-dimensional-array-matrix" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Multi-Dimensional Array (Matrix)
</span>
</a>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#matrix-as-function-parameter" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Matrix as function parameter
</span>
</a>
</li>
</ul>
</nav>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#structs" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Structs
</span>
</a>
<nav class="md-nav" aria-label="Structs">
<ul class="md-nav__list">
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#struct-definition" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Struct Definition
</span>
</a>
</li>
</ul>
</nav>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#pointers" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Pointers
</span>
</a>
<nav class="md-nav" aria-label="Pointers">
<ul class="md-nav__list">
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#pointer-to-array" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Pointer to array
</span>
</a>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#pointers-arrays-functions" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Pointers, Arrays &amp; Functions
</span>
</a>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#pointer-to-struct" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Pointer to Struct
</span>
</a>
</li>
</ul>
</nav>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#dynamic-structures" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Dynamic Structures
</span>
</a>
<nav class="md-nav" aria-label="Dynamic Structures">
<ul class="md-nav__list">
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#stack" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Stack
</span>
</a>
<nav class="md-nav" aria-label="Stack">
<ul class="md-nav__list">
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#node-insertion" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Node Insertion
</span>
</a>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#node-deletion" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Node Deletion
</span>
</a>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#passing-head-to-functions" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Passing Head To Functions
</span>
</a>
</li>
</ul>
</nav>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#queue" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Queue
</span>
</a>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#linked-list" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Linked List
</span>
</a>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#dynamic-memory-allocation" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Dynamic Memory Allocation
</span>
</a>
</li>
</ul>
</nav>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#files" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Files
</span>
</a>
<nav class="md-nav" aria-label="Files">
<ul class="md-nav__list">
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#file-opening" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
File Opening
</span>
</a>
</li>
<li class="md-nav__item">
<a href="#stream-state-input-errors" class="md-nav__link">
<span class="md-ellipsis">
Stream state &amp; Input errors
</span>
</a>
</li>
</ul>
</nav>
</li>
</ul>
</nav>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="md-content" data-md-component="content">
<article class="md-content__inner md-typeset">
<h1 id="cc">C/C++</h1>
<h2 id="library-import">Library Import</h2>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-0-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-0-2">2</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-0-1" name="__codelineno-0-1"></a><span class="cp">#include</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="cpf">&lt;stdio.h&gt;</span><span class="c1"> // search in current + system directories</span>
<a id="__codelineno-0-2" name="__codelineno-0-2"></a><span class="cp">#include</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="cpf">&quot;lib.h&quot;</span><span class="c1"> // search in current directory</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h2 id="special-operators">Special Operators</h2>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Operator</th>
<th>Operator Name</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><code>::</code></td>
<td>global reference operator</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>&amp;</code></td>
<td>address operator (returns a memory address)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>*</code></td>
<td>deferentiation operator (returns the pointed value)</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h2 id="namespace-definition">Namespace definition</h2>
<p>Can be omitted and replaced by namespace<code>::</code><br />
<code>using namespace &lt;namespace&gt;;</code></p>
<h2 id="main-function">Main Function</h2>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-1-1">1</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-1-1" name="__codelineno-1-1"></a><span class="kt">int</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">main</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">int</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">argc</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="kt">char</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[])</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">}</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h2 id="variables-types">Variables &amp; Types</h2>
<h3 id="constant-declaration">Constant Declaration</h3>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-2-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-2-2">2</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-2-1" name="__codelineno-2-1"></a><span class="cp">#define constant_name value</span>
<a id="__codelineno-2-2" name="__codelineno-2-2"></a><span class="k">const</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">constant_name</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">;</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h3 id="variable-declaration">Variable Declaration</h3>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-3-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-3-2">2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-3-3">3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-3-4">4</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-3-1" name="__codelineno-3-1"></a><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">var_name</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//c-like initialization</span>
<a id="__codelineno-3-2" name="__codelineno-3-2"></a><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">var_name</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//constructor initialization</span>
<a id="__codelineno-3-3" name="__codelineno-3-3"></a><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">var_name</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">};</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//uniform initialization</span>
<a id="__codelineno-3-4" name="__codelineno-3-4"></a><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">var_1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">var_2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">...,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">var_n</span><span class="p">;</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h3 id="type-casting">Type Casting</h3>
<p><code>(type) var;</code><br />
<code>type(var);</code></p>
<h3 id="variable-types">Variable Types</h3>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Type</th>
<th>Value Range</th>
<th>Byte</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><code>short</code></td>
<td>-32768 to 32765</td>
<td>1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>unsigned short</code></td>
<td>0 to 65535</td>
<td>1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>int</code></td>
<td>-2147483648 to 2147483647</td>
<td>4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>unsigned int</code></td>
<td>0 to 4294967295</td>
<td>4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>long</code></td>
<td>-2147483648 to 2147483647</td>
<td>4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>unsigned long</code></td>
<td>0 to 4294967295</td>
<td>4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>long long</code></td>
<td></td>
<td>8</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>float</code></td>
<td>&plusmn; 3.4e &plusmn; 38 (~7 digits)</td>
<td>4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>double</code></td>
<td>&plusmn; 1.7e &plusmn; 308 (~15 digits)</td>
<td>8</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>long double</code></td>
<td></td>
<td>16 (?)</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Type</th>
<th>Value</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><code>bool</code></td>
<td>true or false</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>char</code></td>
<td>ascii characters</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>string</code></td>
<td>sequence of ascii characters</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>NULL</code></td>
<td>empty value</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h3 id="integer-numerals">Integer Numerals</h3>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Example</th>
<th>Type</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><code>75</code></td>
<td>decimal</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>0113</code></td>
<td>octal (zero prefix)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>0x4</code></td>
<td>hexadecimal (0x prefix)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>75</code></td>
<td>int</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>75u</code></td>
<td>unsigned int</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>75l</code></td>
<td>long</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>75ul</code></td>
<td>unsigned long</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>75lu</code></td>
<td>unsigned long</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h3 id="floating-point-numerals">Floating Point Numerals</h3>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Example</th>
<th>Type</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><code>3.14159L</code></td>
<td>long double</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>60.22e23f</code></td>
<td>float</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Code</th>
<th>Value</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><code>3.14159</code></td>
<td>3.14159</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>6.02e23</code></td>
<td>6.022 * 10^23</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>1.6e-19</code></td>
<td>1.6 * 10^-19</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>3.0</code></td>
<td>3.0</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h3 id="characterstring-literals">Character/String Literals</h3>
<p><code>'z'</code> single character literal<br />
<code>"text here"</code> string literal</p>
<h3 id="special-characters">Special Characters</h3>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Escape Character</th>
<th>Character</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><code>\n</code></td>
<td>newline</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>\r</code></td>
<td>carriage return</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>\t</code></td>
<td>tab</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>\v</code></td>
<td>vertical tab</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>\b</code></td>
<td>backspace</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>\f</code></td>
<td>form feed</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>\a</code></td>
<td>alert (beep)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>\'</code></td>
<td>single quote (')</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>\"</code></td>
<td>double quote (")</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>\?</code></td>
<td>question mark (?)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>\\</code></td>
<td>backslash ()</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>\0</code></td>
<td>string termination character</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h2 id="standard-inputoutput">Standard Input/Output</h2>
<h3 id="standard-output">Standard Output</h3>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-4-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-4-2">2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-4-3">3</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-4-1" name="__codelineno-4-1"></a><span class="cp">#include</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="cpf">&lt;stdio.h&gt;</span>
<a id="__codelineno-4-2" name="__codelineno-4-2"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-4-3" name="__codelineno-4-3"></a><span class="n">printf_s</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;text %&lt;fmt_spec&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">variable</span><span class="p">);</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h3 id="standard-input">Standard Input</h3>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-5-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-5-2">2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-5-3">3</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-5-1" name="__codelineno-5-1"></a><span class="cp">#include</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="cpf">&lt;stdio.h&gt;</span>
<a id="__codelineno-5-2" name="__codelineno-5-2"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-5-3" name="__codelineno-5-3"></a><span class="n">scanf_s</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;%&lt;fmt_spec&gt;&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">variable</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//return number of successfully accepted inputs</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h3 id="format-specifiers-widthlengthspecifier">Format Specifiers <code>%[width].[length][specifier]</code></h3>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Specifier</th>
<th>Specified Format</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><code>%d</code>, <code>%i</code></td>
<td>singed decimal integer</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>%u</code></td>
<td>unsigned decimal integer</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>%o</code></td>
<td>unsigned octal</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>%x</code></td>
<td>unsigned hexadecimal integer</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>%X</code></td>
<td>unsigned hexadecimal integer (UPPERCASE)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>%f</code></td>
<td>decimal floating point (lowercase)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>%F</code></td>
<td>decimal floating point (UPPERCASE)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>%e</code></td>
<td>scientific notation (lowercase)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>%E</code></td>
<td>scientific notation (UPPERCASE)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>%a</code></td>
<td>hexadecimal floating point (lowercase)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>%A</code></td>
<td>hexadecimal floating point (UPPERCASE)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>%c</code></td>
<td>character</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>%s</code></td>
<td>string</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>%p</code></td>
<td>pointer address</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h2 id="operators">Operators</h2>
<h3 id="arithmetic-operators">Arithmetic Operators</h3>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Operator</th>
<th>Operation</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>a <code>+</code> b</td>
<td>sum</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>-</code> b</td>
<td>subtraction</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>*</code> b</td>
<td>multiplication</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>/</code> b</td>
<td>division</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>%</code> b</td>
<td>modulo</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a<code>++</code></td>
<td>increment</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a<code>--</code></td>
<td>decrement</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h3 id="comparison-operators">Comparison Operators</h3>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Operator</th>
<th>Operation</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>a <code>==</code> b</td>
<td>equal to</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>!=</code> b</td>
<td>not equal to</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>&gt;</code> b</td>
<td>greater than</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>&lt;</code> b</td>
<td>lesser than</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>&gt;=</code> b</td>
<td>greater than or equal to</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>&lt;=</code> b</td>
<td>lesser than or equal to</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h3 id="logical-operator">Logical Operator</h3>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Operator</th>
<th>Operation</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><code>!</code>a, <code>not</code> a</td>
<td>logical negation (NOT)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>&amp;&amp;</code> b, a <code>and</code> b</td>
<td>logical AND</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>||</code> b, a <code>or</code> b</td>
<td>logical OR</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h3 id="conditional-ternary-operator">Conditional Ternary Operator</h3>
<p><code>condition ? result_1 : result_2</code><br />
If condition is true evaluates to result_1, and otherwise to result_2</p>
<h3 id="bitwise-operators">Bitwise Operators</h3>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Operator</th>
<th>Operation</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><code>~</code>a, <code>compl</code> a</td>
<td>bitwise <strong>NOT</strong></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>&amp;</code> b, a <code>bitand</code> b</td>
<td>bitwise <strong>AND</strong></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>|</code> b, a <code>bitor</code> b</td>
<td>bitwise <strong>OR</strong></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>^</code> b, a <code>xor</code> b,</td>
<td>bitwise <strong>XOR</strong></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>&lt;&lt;</code> b</td>
<td>bitwise left shift</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>&gt;&gt;</code> b</td>
<td>bitwise right shift</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h3 id="compound-assignment-operators">Compound Assignment Operators</h3>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Operator</th>
<th>Operation</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>a <code>+=</code> b</td>
<td>a = a + b</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>-=</code> b</td>
<td>a = a - b</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>*=</code> b</td>
<td>a = a * b</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>/=</code> b</td>
<td>a = a / b</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>%=</code> b</td>
<td>a = a % b</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>&amp;=</code> b</td>
<td>a = a &amp; b</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>|=</code> b</td>
<td>a = a</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>^=</code> b</td>
<td>a = a ^ b</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>&lt;&lt;=</code> b</td>
<td>a = a &lt;&lt; b</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>a <code>&gt;&gt;=</code> b</td>
<td>a = a &gt;&gt; b</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h3 id="operator-precedence">Operator Precedence</h3>
<ol>
<li><code>!</code></li>
<li><code>*</code>, <code>/</code>, <code>%</code></li>
<li><code>+</code>, <code>-</code></li>
<li><code>&lt;</code>, <code>&lt;=</code>, <code>&lt;</code>, <code>&gt;=</code></li>
<li><code>==</code>, <code>!=</code></li>
<li><code>&amp;&amp;</code></li>
<li><code>||</code></li>
<li><code>=</code></li>
</ol>
<h2 id="common-functions">Common Functions</h2>
<h3 id="mathematical-functions">Mathematical Functions</h3>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-1"> 1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-2"> 2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-3"> 3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-4"> 4</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-5"> 5</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-6"> 6</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-7"> 7</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-8"> 8</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-9"> 9</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-10">10</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-11">11</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-12">12</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-13">13</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-14">14</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-15">15</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-16">16</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-17">17</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-18">18</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-19">19</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-20">20</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-21">21</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-22">22</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-6-1" name="__codelineno-6-1"></a><span class="cp">#include</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="cpf">&lt;cmath&gt;</span>
<a id="__codelineno-6-2" name="__codelineno-6-2"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-6-3" name="__codelineno-6-3"></a><span class="n">abs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// absolute value</span>
<a id="__codelineno-6-4" name="__codelineno-6-4"></a><span class="n">labs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//absolute value if x is long, result is long</span>
<a id="__codelineno-6-5" name="__codelineno-6-5"></a><span class="n">fabs</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//absolute value if x i float, result is float</span>
<a id="__codelineno-6-6" name="__codelineno-6-6"></a><span class="n">sqrt</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// square root</span>
<a id="__codelineno-6-7" name="__codelineno-6-7"></a><span class="n">ceil</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// ceil function (next integer)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-6-8" name="__codelineno-6-8"></a><span class="n">floor</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// floor function (integer part of x)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-6-9" name="__codelineno-6-9"></a><span class="n">log</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// natural log of x</span>
<a id="__codelineno-6-10" name="__codelineno-6-10"></a><span class="n">log10</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// log base 10 of x</span>
<a id="__codelineno-6-11" name="__codelineno-6-11"></a><span class="n">exp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// e^x</span>
<a id="__codelineno-6-12" name="__codelineno-6-12"></a><span class="n">pow</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// x^y</span>
<a id="__codelineno-6-13" name="__codelineno-6-13"></a><span class="n">sin</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">);</span>
<a id="__codelineno-6-14" name="__codelineno-6-14"></a><span class="n">cos</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">);</span>
<a id="__codelineno-6-15" name="__codelineno-6-15"></a><span class="n">tan</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">);</span>
<a id="__codelineno-6-16" name="__codelineno-6-16"></a><span class="n">asin</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//arcsin(x)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-6-17" name="__codelineno-6-17"></a><span class="n">acos</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//arccos(x)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-6-18" name="__codelineno-6-18"></a><span class="n">atan</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//arctan(x)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-6-19" name="__codelineno-6-19"></a><span class="n">atan2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">y</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//arctan(x / y)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-6-20" name="__codelineno-6-20"></a><span class="n">sinh</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//hyperbolic sin(x)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-6-21" name="__codelineno-6-21"></a><span class="n">cosh</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//hyperbolic cos(x)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-6-22" name="__codelineno-6-22"></a><span class="n">tanh</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">x</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//hyperbolic tan(X)</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h3 id="character-functions">Character Functions</h3>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-7-1"> 1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-7-2"> 2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-7-3"> 3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-7-4"> 4</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-7-5"> 5</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-7-6"> 6</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-7-7"> 7</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-7-8"> 8</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-7-9"> 9</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-7-10">10</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-7-11">11</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-7-12">12</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-7-13">13</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-7-14">14</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-7-15">15</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-7-1" name="__codelineno-7-1"></a><span class="n">isalnum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//true if c is alphanumeric</span>
<a id="__codelineno-7-2" name="__codelineno-7-2"></a><span class="n">isalpha</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//true if c is a letter</span>
<a id="__codelineno-7-3" name="__codelineno-7-3"></a><span class="n">isdigit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//true if char is 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9</span>
<a id="__codelineno-7-4" name="__codelineno-7-4"></a><span class="n">iscntrl</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//true id c is DELETE or CONTROL CHARACTER</span>
<a id="__codelineno-7-5" name="__codelineno-7-5"></a><span class="n">isascii</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//true if c is a valid ASCII character</span>
<a id="__codelineno-7-6" name="__codelineno-7-6"></a><span class="n">isprint</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//true if c is printable</span>
<a id="__codelineno-7-7" name="__codelineno-7-7"></a><span class="n">isgraph</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//true id c is printable, SPACE excluded</span>
<a id="__codelineno-7-8" name="__codelineno-7-8"></a><span class="n">islower</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//true if c is lowercase</span>
<a id="__codelineno-7-9" name="__codelineno-7-9"></a><span class="n">isupper</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//true if c is uppercase</span>
<a id="__codelineno-7-10" name="__codelineno-7-10"></a><span class="n">ispunct</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//true if c is punctuation</span>
<a id="__codelineno-7-11" name="__codelineno-7-11"></a><span class="n">isspace</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//true if c is SPACE</span>
<a id="__codelineno-7-12" name="__codelineno-7-12"></a><span class="n">isxdigit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//true if c is HEX DIGIT</span>
<a id="__codelineno-7-13" name="__codelineno-7-13"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-7-14" name="__codelineno-7-14"></a><span class="n">tolower</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//transforms character in lowercase</span>
<a id="__codelineno-7-15" name="__codelineno-7-15"></a><span class="n">toupper</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//transform character in uppercase</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h3 id="string-functions">String Functions</h3>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-8-1"> 1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-8-2"> 2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-8-3"> 3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-8-4"> 4</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-8-5"> 5</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-8-6"> 6</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-8-7"> 7</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-8-8"> 8</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-8-9"> 9</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-8-10">10</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-8-11">11</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-8-12">12</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-8-13">13</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-8-1" name="__codelineno-8-1"></a><span class="n">strlen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">string</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//return length (num of chars) of the string</span>
<a id="__codelineno-8-2" name="__codelineno-8-2"></a><span class="n">strcat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">destination</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">source</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//appends chars of string2 to string1</span>
<a id="__codelineno-8-3" name="__codelineno-8-3"></a><span class="n">strncat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">string1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">string2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">nchar</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//appends the first n chars of string 2 to string1</span>
<a id="__codelineno-8-4" name="__codelineno-8-4"></a><span class="n">strcpy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">string1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">string2</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">c_str</span><span class="p">());</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//copies string2 into string1 char by char</span>
<a id="__codelineno-8-5" name="__codelineno-8-5"></a><span class="n">strncpy</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">string1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">string2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//copy first n chars from string2 to string1</span>
<a id="__codelineno-8-6" name="__codelineno-8-6"></a><span class="n">strcmp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">string1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">string2</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//compares string1 w/ string2</span>
<a id="__codelineno-8-7" name="__codelineno-8-7"></a><span class="n">strncmp</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">string1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">string2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//compares first n chars</span>
<a id="__codelineno-8-8" name="__codelineno-8-8"></a><span class="c1">//returns &lt; 0 if string1 precedes string2</span>
<a id="__codelineno-8-9" name="__codelineno-8-9"></a><span class="c1">//returns 0 if string1 == string2</span>
<a id="__codelineno-8-10" name="__codelineno-8-10"></a><span class="c1">// returns &gt; 0 if string1 succeeds string2</span>
<a id="__codelineno-8-11" name="__codelineno-8-11"></a><span class="n">strchr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">string</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">c</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//returns index of c in string if it exists, NULL otherwise</span>
<a id="__codelineno-8-12" name="__codelineno-8-12"></a><span class="n">strstr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">string1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">string2</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//returns pointer to starting index of string1 in string2</span>
<a id="__codelineno-8-13" name="__codelineno-8-13"></a><span class="n">strpbrk</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">string</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">charSet</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//Returns a pointer to the first occurrence of any character from strCharSet in str, or a NULL pointer if the two string arguments have no characters in common.</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h3 id="string-conversion">String Conversion</h3>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-9-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-9-2">2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-9-3">3</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-9-1" name="__codelineno-9-1"></a><span class="n">atof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">string</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//converts string in double if possible</span>
<a id="__codelineno-9-2" name="__codelineno-9-2"></a><span class="n">atoi</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">string</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//converts string in integer if possible</span>
<a id="__codelineno-9-3" name="__codelineno-9-3"></a><span class="n">atol</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">string</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//converts string in long if possible</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h3 id="string-methods">String Methods</h3>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C++</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-10-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-10-2">2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-10-3">3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-10-4">4</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-10-1" name="__codelineno-10-1"></a><span class="n">string</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">at</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pos</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// returns char at index pos</span>
<a id="__codelineno-10-2" name="__codelineno-10-2"></a><span class="n">string</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">substr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">start</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">end</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// returns substring between indexes START and END</span>
<a id="__codelineno-10-3" name="__codelineno-10-3"></a><span class="n">string</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">c_str</span><span class="p">();</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//reads string char by char</span>
<a id="__codelineno-10-4" name="__codelineno-10-4"></a><span class="n">string</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">find</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">substring</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// The zero-based index of the first character in string object that matches the requested substring or characters</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h2 id="decision-statements">Decision Statements</h2>
<h3 id="if-statements">If Statements</h3>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-11-1"> 1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-11-2"> 2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-11-3"> 3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-11-4"> 4</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-11-5"> 5</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-11-6"> 6</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-11-7"> 7</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-11-8"> 8</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-11-9"> 9</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-11-10">10</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-11-11">11</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-11-12">12</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-11-13">13</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-11-14">14</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-11-1" name="__codelineno-11-1"></a><span class="k">if</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">condition</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">}</span>
<a id="__codelineno-11-2" name="__codelineno-11-2"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-11-3" name="__codelineno-11-3"></a><span class="k">if</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">condition</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span>
<a id="__codelineno-11-4" name="__codelineno-11-4"></a><span class="p">{</span>
<a id="__codelineno-11-5" name="__codelineno-11-5"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-11-6" name="__codelineno-11-6"></a><span class="p">}</span>
<a id="__codelineno-11-7" name="__codelineno-11-7"></a><span class="k">else</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">if</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">condition</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span>
<a id="__codelineno-11-8" name="__codelineno-11-8"></a><span class="p">{</span>
<a id="__codelineno-11-9" name="__codelineno-11-9"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-11-10" name="__codelineno-11-10"></a><span class="p">}</span>
<a id="__codelineno-11-11" name="__codelineno-11-11"></a><span class="k">else</span>
<a id="__codelineno-11-12" name="__codelineno-11-12"></a><span class="p">{</span>
<a id="__codelineno-11-13" name="__codelineno-11-13"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-11-14" name="__codelineno-11-14"></a><span class="p">}</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h3 id="switch">Switch</h3>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-12-1"> 1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-12-2"> 2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-12-3"> 3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-12-4"> 4</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-12-5"> 5</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-12-6"> 6</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-12-7"> 7</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-12-8"> 8</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-12-9"> 9</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-12-10">10</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-12-11">11</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-12-12">12</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-12-1" name="__codelineno-12-1"></a><span class="k">switch</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">expression</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
<a id="__codelineno-12-2" name="__codelineno-12-2"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">case</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="no">constant_1</span><span class="p">:</span>
<a id="__codelineno-12-3" name="__codelineno-12-3"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//code here</span>
<a id="__codelineno-12-4" name="__codelineno-12-4"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">break</span><span class="p">;</span>
<a id="__codelineno-12-5" name="__codelineno-12-5"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-12-6" name="__codelineno-12-6"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">case</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="no">constant_2</span><span class="p">:</span>
<a id="__codelineno-12-7" name="__codelineno-12-7"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//code here</span>
<a id="__codelineno-12-8" name="__codelineno-12-8"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">break</span><span class="p">;</span>
<a id="__codelineno-12-9" name="__codelineno-12-9"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-12-10" name="__codelineno-12-10"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">default</span><span class="o">:</span>
<a id="__codelineno-12-11" name="__codelineno-12-11"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//code here</span>
<a id="__codelineno-12-12" name="__codelineno-12-12"></a><span class="p">}</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h2 id="loop-statements">Loop Statements</h2>
<h3 id="while-loop">While Loop</h3>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-13-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-13-2">2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-13-3">3</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-13-1" name="__codelineno-13-1"></a><span class="k">while</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">condition</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
<a id="__codelineno-13-2" name="__codelineno-13-2"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//code here</span>
<a id="__codelineno-13-3" name="__codelineno-13-3"></a><span class="p">}</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h3 id="do-while">Do While</h3>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-14-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-14-2">2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-14-3">3</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-14-1" name="__codelineno-14-1"></a><span class="k">do</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
<a id="__codelineno-14-2" name="__codelineno-14-2"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//code here</span>
<a id="__codelineno-14-3" name="__codelineno-14-3"></a><span class="p">}</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">while</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">condition</span><span class="p">);</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h3 id="for-loop">For Loop</h3>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-15-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-15-2">2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-15-3">3</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-15-1" name="__codelineno-15-1"></a><span class="k">for</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">initialization</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">condition</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">increase</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
<a id="__codelineno-15-2" name="__codelineno-15-2"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//code here</span>
<a id="__codelineno-15-3" name="__codelineno-15-3"></a><span class="p">}</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h3 id="break-statement">Break Statement</h3>
<p><code>break;</code> leaves a loop, even if the condition for its end is not fulfilled.</p>
<h3 id="continue-statement">Continue Statement</h3>
<p><code>continue;</code> causes the program to skip the rest of the loop in the current iteration.</p>
<h2 id="functions">Functions</h2>
<p>Functions <strong>must</strong> be declared <strong>before</strong> the main function.<br />
It is possible to declare functions <strong>after</strong> the main only if the <em>prototype</em> is declared <strong>before</strong> the main.<br />
To return multiple variables those variables can be passed by reference so that their values is adjourned in the main.</p>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-16-1"> 1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-16-2"> 2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-16-3"> 3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-16-4"> 4</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-16-5"> 5</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-16-6"> 6</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-16-7"> 7</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-16-8"> 8</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-16-9"> 9</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-16-10">10</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-16-1" name="__codelineno-16-1"></a><span class="c1">// function prototype (usually in a .h file)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-16-2" name="__codelineno-16-2"></a><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">function_name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">argument1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">...);</span><span class="w"> </span>
<a id="__codelineno-16-3" name="__codelineno-16-3"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-16-4" name="__codelineno-16-4"></a><span class="c1">// function implementation (usually in a .c file)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-16-5" name="__codelineno-16-5"></a><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">function_name</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">parameters</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
<a id="__codelineno-16-6" name="__codelineno-16-6"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">return</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">expression</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">;</span>
<a id="__codelineno-16-7" name="__codelineno-16-7"></a><span class="p">}</span>
<a id="__codelineno-16-8" name="__codelineno-16-8"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-16-9" name="__codelineno-16-9"></a><span class="c1">// function without a return value</span>
<a id="__codelineno-16-10" name="__codelineno-16-10"></a><span class="kt">void</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">function_name</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">parameters</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">}</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>Note</strong>: annotatic a function with <code>static</code> makes it visible only inside the file in which is implemented/declared</p>
</blockquote>
<h3 id="arguments-passed-by-reference-without-pointers">Arguments passed by reference without pointers</h3>
<p>Passing arguments by reference causes modifications made inside the function to be propagated to the values outside.<br />
Passing arguments by values copies the values to the arguments: changes remain inside the function. </p>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-17-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-17-2">2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-17-3">3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-17-4">4</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-17-5">5</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-17-6">6</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-17-1" name="__codelineno-17-1"></a><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">functionName</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">argument1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">...)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
<a id="__codelineno-17-2" name="__codelineno-17-2"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//code here</span>
<a id="__codelineno-17-3" name="__codelineno-17-3"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">return</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">expression</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">;</span>
<a id="__codelineno-17-4" name="__codelineno-17-4"></a><span class="p">}</span>
<a id="__codelineno-17-5" name="__codelineno-17-5"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-17-6" name="__codelineno-17-6"></a><span class="n">function_name</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">argument_1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">...);</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h3 id="arguments-passed-by-reference-with-pointers">Arguments passed by reference with pointers</h3>
<p>Passing arguments by reference causes modifications made inside the function to be propagated to the values outside.<br />
Passing arguments by values copies the values to the arguments: changes remain inside the function.</p>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-18-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-18-2">2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-18-3">3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-18-4">4</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-18-5">5</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-18-6">6</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-18-1" name="__codelineno-18-1"></a><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">function_name</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">argument_1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">...)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
<a id="__codelineno-18-2" name="__codelineno-18-2"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">instructions</span><span class="p">;</span>
<a id="__codelineno-18-3" name="__codelineno-18-3"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">return</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">expression</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">;</span>
<a id="__codelineno-18-4" name="__codelineno-18-4"></a><span class="p">}</span>
<a id="__codelineno-18-5" name="__codelineno-18-5"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-18-6" name="__codelineno-18-6"></a><span class="n">function_name</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">argument_1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">...);</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h2 id="arrays">Arrays</h2>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-19-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-19-2">2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-19-3">3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-19-4">4</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-19-5">5</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-19-1" name="__codelineno-19-1"></a><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">arrayName</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">dimension</span><span class="p">];</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//array declaration</span>
<a id="__codelineno-19-2" name="__codelineno-19-2"></a><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">arrayName</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">dimension</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span><span class="n">value1</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">value2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">...};</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//array declaration &amp; initialization, values number must match dimension</span>
<a id="__codelineno-19-3" name="__codelineno-19-3"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-19-4" name="__codelineno-19-4"></a><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//item access, index starts at 0 (zero)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-19-5" name="__codelineno-19-5"></a><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//value assignment at position index</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h2 id="array-as-function-parameter">Array as function parameter</h2>
<p>The dimension is not specified because it is determined by the passed array.<br />
The array is passed by reference.</p>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-20-1"> 1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-20-2"> 2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-20-3"> 3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-20-4"> 4</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-20-5"> 5</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-20-6"> 6</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-20-7"> 7</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-20-8"> 8</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-20-9"> 9</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-20-10">10</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-20-1" name="__codelineno-20-1"></a><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">[]){</span>
<a id="__codelineno-20-2" name="__codelineno-20-2"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//code here</span>
<a id="__codelineno-20-3" name="__codelineno-20-3"></a><span class="p">}</span>
<a id="__codelineno-20-4" name="__codelineno-20-4"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-20-5" name="__codelineno-20-5"></a><span class="c1">//array is not modifiable inside the function (READ ONLY)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-20-6" name="__codelineno-20-6"></a><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">const</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">[]){</span>
<a id="__codelineno-20-7" name="__codelineno-20-7"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//code here</span>
<a id="__codelineno-20-8" name="__codelineno-20-8"></a><span class="p">}</span>
<a id="__codelineno-20-9" name="__codelineno-20-9"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-20-10" name="__codelineno-20-10"></a><span class="n">function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//array passed w/out square brackets []</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h3 id="multi-dimensional-array-matrix">Multi-Dimensional Array (Matrix)</h3>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-21-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-21-2">2</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-21-1" name="__codelineno-21-1"></a><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">matrix</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">rows</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="n">columns</span><span class="p">];</span>
<a id="__codelineno-21-2" name="__codelineno-21-2"></a><span class="n">matrix</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">i</span><span class="p">][</span><span class="n">j</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//element A_ij of the matrix</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h3 id="matrix-as-function-parameter">Matrix as function parameter</h3>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-22-1"> 1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-22-2"> 2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-22-3"> 3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-22-4"> 4</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-22-5"> 5</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-22-6"> 6</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-22-7"> 7</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-22-8"> 8</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-22-9"> 9</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-22-10">10</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-22-11">11</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-22-12">12</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-22-13">13</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-22-1" name="__codelineno-22-1"></a><span class="c1">//matrix passed by reference, second dimension is mandatory</span>
<a id="__codelineno-22-2" name="__codelineno-22-2"></a><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">matrix</span><span class="p">[][</span><span class="n">columns</span><span class="p">]){</span>
<a id="__codelineno-22-3" name="__codelineno-22-3"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//code here</span>
<a id="__codelineno-22-4" name="__codelineno-22-4"></a><span class="p">};</span>
<a id="__codelineno-22-5" name="__codelineno-22-5"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-22-6" name="__codelineno-22-6"></a><span class="c1">//matrix values READ ONLY</span>
<a id="__codelineno-22-7" name="__codelineno-22-7"></a><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">const</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">matrix</span><span class="p">[][</span><span class="n">columns</span><span class="p">]){</span>
<a id="__codelineno-22-8" name="__codelineno-22-8"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//code here</span>
<a id="__codelineno-22-9" name="__codelineno-22-9"></a><span class="p">}</span>
<a id="__codelineno-22-10" name="__codelineno-22-10"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-22-11" name="__codelineno-22-11"></a><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">matrix</span><span class="p">[][</span><span class="n">dim2</span><span class="p">]...[</span><span class="n">dimN</span><span class="p">]){</span>
<a id="__codelineno-22-12" name="__codelineno-22-12"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//code here</span>
<a id="__codelineno-22-13" name="__codelineno-22-13"></a><span class="p">}</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h2 id="structs">Structs</h2>
<h3 id="struct-definition">Struct Definition</h3>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-23-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-23-2">2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-23-3">3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-23-4">4</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-23-5">5</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-23-6">6</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-23-7">7</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-23-8">8</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-23-9">9</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-23-1" name="__codelineno-23-1"></a><span class="k">struct</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nc">Struct</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
<a id="__codelineno-23-2" name="__codelineno-23-2"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">field1</span><span class="p">;</span>
<a id="__codelineno-23-3" name="__codelineno-23-3"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">field2</span><span class="p">;</span>
<a id="__codelineno-23-4" name="__codelineno-23-4"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">field3</span><span class="p">;</span>
<a id="__codelineno-23-5" name="__codelineno-23-5"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">field4</span><span class="p">;</span>
<a id="__codelineno-23-6" name="__codelineno-23-6"></a><span class="p">};</span>
<a id="__codelineno-23-7" name="__codelineno-23-7"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-23-8" name="__codelineno-23-8"></a><span class="n">Struct</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">variable</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// struct-type variable</span>
<a id="__codelineno-23-9" name="__codelineno-23-9"></a><span class="n">variable</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">field</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// field access</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h2 id="pointers">Pointers</h2>
<p>Pointers hold memory addresses of declared variables, they should be initialized to NULL.</p>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-24-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-24-2">2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-24-3">3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-24-4">4</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-24-1" name="__codelineno-24-1"></a><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">pointer</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">variable</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//pointer init and assignment</span>
<a id="__codelineno-24-2" name="__codelineno-24-2"></a><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">pointer</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<a id="__codelineno-24-3" name="__codelineno-24-3"></a><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">pointer</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">otherPointer</span><span class="p">;</span>
<a id="__codelineno-24-4" name="__codelineno-24-4"></a><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">**</span><span class="n">pointerToPointer</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">&amp;</span><span class="n">pointer</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// pointerToPointer -&gt; pointer -&gt; variable</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<p><code>&amp;variable</code> extracts the address, the pointer holds the address of the variable.<br />
pointer type and variable type <strong>must</strong> match.<br />
(*) &rarr; "value pointed to by"</p>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-25-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-25-2">2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-25-3">3</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-25-1" name="__codelineno-25-1"></a><span class="n">pointer</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//address of pointed value (value of variable)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-25-2" name="__codelineno-25-2"></a><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">pointer</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//value of pointed variable</span>
<a id="__codelineno-25-3" name="__codelineno-25-3"></a><span class="o">**</span><span class="n">pointer</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//value pointed by *pointer (pointer to pointer)</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h3 id="pointer-to-array">Pointer to array</h3>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-26-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-26-2">2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-26-3">3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-26-4">4</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-26-5">5</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-26-6">6</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-26-1" name="__codelineno-26-1"></a><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">pointer</span><span class="p">;</span>
<a id="__codelineno-26-2" name="__codelineno-26-2"></a><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">dim</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{};</span>
<a id="__codelineno-26-3" name="__codelineno-26-3"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-26-4" name="__codelineno-26-4"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-26-5" name="__codelineno-26-5"></a><span class="n">pointer</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//point to array (pointer points to first &quot;cell&quot; of array)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-26-6" name="__codelineno-26-6"></a><span class="n">pointer</span><span class="o">++</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//change pointed value to successive &quot;cell&quot; of array</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h3 id="pointers-arrays-functions">Pointers, Arrays &amp; Functions</h3>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-27-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-27-2">2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-27-3">3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-27-4">4</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-27-5">5</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-27-1" name="__codelineno-27-1"></a><span class="n">func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//pass entire array to function (no need to use (&amp;) to extract address)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-27-2" name="__codelineno-27-2"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-27-3" name="__codelineno-27-3"></a><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">func</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">){</span>
<a id="__codelineno-27-4" name="__codelineno-27-4"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">array</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">index</span><span class="p">]</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//access to item of array at index</span>
<a id="__codelineno-27-5" name="__codelineno-27-5"></a><span class="p">}</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h3 id="pointer-to-struct">Pointer to Struct</h3>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-28-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-28-2">2</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-28-1" name="__codelineno-28-1"></a><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">structPointer</span><span class="p">).</span><span class="n">field</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//access to field value</span>
<a id="__codelineno-28-2" name="__codelineno-28-2"></a><span class="n">structPointer</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">structField</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//access to field value</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h2 id="dynamic-structures">Dynamic Structures</h2>
<p>Dynamic structures are structures without a fixed number of items. </p>
<p>Every item in a dynamic structure is called <strong>node</strong>.<br />
Every node is composed by two parts:</p>
<ul>
<li>the value (item)</li>
<li>pointer to successive node</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Lists</strong> are <em>linear</em> dynamic structures in which is only defined the preceding and succeeding item. A List is a group of homogeneous items (all of the same type). </p>
<p><strong>Trees</strong>, <strong>Graphs</strong> are non <em>linear</em> dynamic structures in which an item cha have multiple successors. </p>
<h3 id="stack">Stack</h3>
<p>A <strong>Stack</strong> is a list in with nodes can be extracted from one <em>side</em> only (<em>LIFO</em>).
The extraction of an item from the <em>top</em> is called <strong>pop</strong></p>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-29-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-29-2">2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-29-3">3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-29-4">4</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-29-5">5</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-29-1" name="__codelineno-29-1"></a><span class="c1">// node structure</span>
<a id="__codelineno-29-2" name="__codelineno-29-2"></a><span class="k">struct</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nc">Node</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
<a id="__codelineno-29-3" name="__codelineno-29-3"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">;</span>
<a id="__codelineno-29-4" name="__codelineno-29-4"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">stack</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">next</span><span class="p">;</span>
<a id="__codelineno-29-5" name="__codelineno-29-5"></a><span class="p">}</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h4 id="node-insertion">Node Insertion</h4>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-30-1"> 1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-30-2"> 2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-30-3"> 3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-30-4"> 4</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-30-5"> 5</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-30-6"> 6</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-30-7"> 7</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-30-8"> 8</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-30-9"> 9</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-30-10">10</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-30-11">11</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-30-12">12</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-30-1" name="__codelineno-30-1"></a><span class="n">Node</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">stackNode</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//current node</span>
<a id="__codelineno-30-2" name="__codelineno-30-2"></a><span class="n">Node</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">head</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//pointer to head of stack</span>
<a id="__codelineno-30-3" name="__codelineno-30-3"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-30-4" name="__codelineno-30-4"></a><span class="kt">int</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">nodeValue</span><span class="p">;</span>
<a id="__codelineno-30-5" name="__codelineno-30-5"></a><span class="c1">//assign value to nodeValue</span>
<a id="__codelineno-30-6" name="__codelineno-30-6"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-30-7" name="__codelineno-30-7"></a><span class="n">stackNode</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">Node</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">malloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Node</span><span class="p">));</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//create new node</span>
<a id="__codelineno-30-8" name="__codelineno-30-8"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-30-9" name="__codelineno-30-9"></a><span class="n">stackNode</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">nodevalue</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//valorize node</span>
<a id="__codelineno-30-10" name="__codelineno-30-10"></a><span class="n">stackNode</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">next</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">head</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//update node pointer to old head adding it to the stack</span>
<a id="__codelineno-30-11" name="__codelineno-30-11"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-30-12" name="__codelineno-30-12"></a><span class="n">head</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">stackNode</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//update head to point to new first node</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h4 id="node-deletion">Node Deletion</h4>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-31-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-31-2">2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-31-3">3</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-31-1" name="__codelineno-31-1"></a><span class="n">stackNode</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">head</span><span class="o">-&gt;</span><span class="n">next</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//memorize location of second node</span>
<a id="__codelineno-31-2" name="__codelineno-31-2"></a><span class="n">free</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">head</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//delete first node</span>
<a id="__codelineno-31-3" name="__codelineno-31-3"></a><span class="n">head</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">stackNode</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//update head to point to new first node</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h4 id="passing-head-to-functions">Passing Head To Functions</h4>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-32-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-32-2">2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-32-3">3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-32-4">4</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-32-1" name="__codelineno-32-1"></a><span class="n">type</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">function</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">Node</span><span class="o">**</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">head</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//value of head passed by address (head is Node*)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-32-2" name="__codelineno-32-2"></a><span class="p">{</span>
<a id="__codelineno-32-3" name="__codelineno-32-3"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">head</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">...</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//update value of head (pointed variable/object/Node)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-32-4" name="__codelineno-32-4"></a><span class="p">}</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h3 id="queue">Queue</h3>
<p>A <strong>Queue</strong> is a list in which nodes enter from one side and can be extracted only from the other side (<em>FIFO</em>).</p>
<h3 id="linked-list">Linked List</h3>
<p>A <strong>Linked List</strong> is list in which nodes can be extracted from each side and from inside the linked list.</p>
<p>Linked lists can be <em>linear</em>, <em>circular</em> or <em>bidirectional</em>.<br />
In circular linked lists the last node points to the first.</p>
<p>Nodes of bidirectional linked lists are composed by three parts:</p>
<ul>
<li>the value (item)</li>
<li>pointer to successive node</li>
<li>pointer to previous item</li>
</ul>
<p>Thus the first and last node will have a component empty since they only point to a single node.</p>
<h3 id="dynamic-memory-allocation">Dynamic Memory Allocation</h3>
<p>C does not automatically free allocated memory when nodes are deleted. It must be done manually. </p>
<ul>
<li><code>malloc()</code> returns a void pointer if the allocation is successful.</li>
<li><code>free()</code> frees the memory</li>
</ul>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-33-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-33-2">2</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-33-1" name="__codelineno-33-1"></a><span class="n">list</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">*</span><span class="n">pointer</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="n">malloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="k">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">list</span><span class="p">));</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//memory allocation</span>
<a id="__codelineno-33-2" name="__codelineno-33-2"></a><span class="n">free</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">pointer</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//freeing of memory</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<p><code>malloc()</code> returns a <em>void pointer</em> thus the list must be casted to a void type with <code>(list*)</code></p>
<h2 id="files">Files</h2>
<p>The object oriented approach is based on the use of <em>streams</em>.<br />
A <strong>Stream</strong> can be considered a stream of data that passes sequentially from a source to a destination.</p>
<p>The available classes in C++ to operate on files are:</p>
<ul>
<li><code>ifstream</code> for the input (reading)</li>
<li><code>ofstream</code> for the output (writing)</li>
<li><code>fstream</code> for input or output</li>
</ul>
<h3 id="file-opening">File Opening</h3>
<p>Filename can be string literal or CharArray (use <code>c_str()</code>).</p>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">C</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-34-1"> 1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-34-2"> 2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-34-3"> 3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-34-4"> 4</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-34-5"> 5</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-34-6"> 6</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-34-7"> 7</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-34-8"> 8</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-34-9"> 9</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-34-10">10</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-34-11">11</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-34-12">12</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-34-13">13</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-34-14">14</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-34-15">15</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-34-1" name="__codelineno-34-1"></a><span class="n">ifstream</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">;</span>
<a id="__codelineno-34-2" name="__codelineno-34-2"></a><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;filename&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//read from file</span>
<a id="__codelineno-34-3" name="__codelineno-34-3"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-34-4" name="__codelineno-34-4"></a><span class="n">ofstream</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">;</span>
<a id="__codelineno-34-5" name="__codelineno-34-5"></a><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;filename&quot;</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//write to file</span>
<a id="__codelineno-34-6" name="__codelineno-34-6"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-34-7" name="__codelineno-34-7"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-34-8" name="__codelineno-34-8"></a><span class="n">fstream</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">;</span>
<a id="__codelineno-34-9" name="__codelineno-34-9"></a><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;filename&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ios</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">in</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//read form file</span>
<a id="__codelineno-34-10" name="__codelineno-34-10"></a><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;filename&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ios</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">out</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//write to file</span>
<a id="__codelineno-34-11" name="__codelineno-34-11"></a><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;filename&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ios</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">app</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//append to file</span>
<a id="__codelineno-34-12" name="__codelineno-34-12"></a><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;filename&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ios</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">trunc</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//overwrite file</span>
<a id="__codelineno-34-13" name="__codelineno-34-13"></a><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;filename&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ios</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">nocreate</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//opens file only if it exists, error otherwise. Does not create new file</span>
<a id="__codelineno-34-14" name="__codelineno-34-14"></a><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;filename&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ios</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">noreplace</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//opens file only if it not exists, error otherwise. If it not exists the file is created.</span>
<a id="__codelineno-34-15" name="__codelineno-34-15"></a><span class="n">file</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;filename&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">ios</span><span class="o">::</span><span class="n">binary</span><span class="p">);</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">//opens file in binary format</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<p>If file opening fails the stream has value 0, otherwise the value is the assigned memory address.<br />
Opening modes can be combined with the OR operator: <code>ios::mode | ios::mode</code>.</p>
<h3 id="stream-state-input-errors">Stream state &amp; Input errors</h3>
<p>Once a stream is in a <strong>state of error</strong> it will remain so until the status flags are <em>explicitly resetted</em>. The input operations on such a stream are <em>void</em> until the reset happens.<br />
To clear the status of a stream the <code>clear()</code> method is used.<br />
Furthermore, when an error on the stream happens <strong>the stream is not cleared</strong> of it's characters contents.<br />
To clear the stream contents the <code>ignore()</code> method is used.</p>
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