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<h1 id="cargo-build-system-and-package-manager">Cargo build system and package manager</h1>
<h2 id="creating-a-project">Creating a project</h2>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">PowerShell</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-0-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-0-2">2</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-0-1" name="__codelineno-0-1"></a><span class="n">cargo</span> <span class="n">new</span> <span class="n">project_name</span> <span class="c"># creates project folder and basic files</span>
<a id="__codelineno-0-2" name="__codelineno-0-2"></a><span class="n">cargo</span> <span class="n">new</span> <span class="p">-</span><span class="n">-vcs</span><span class="p">=</span><span class="n">git</span> <span class="n">project_name</span> <span class="c"># init project as git repo</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h2 id="building-running-checking-a-project">Building, Running &amp; Checking a project</h2>
<p>Inside the project directory:</p>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">PowerShell</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-1-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-1-2">2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-1-3">3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-1-4">4</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-1-1" name="__codelineno-1-1"></a><span class="n">cargo</span> <span class="n">build</span> <span class="c"># build project and download eventual needed dependencies</span>
<a id="__codelineno-1-2" name="__codelineno-1-2"></a><span class="n">cargo</span> <span class="n">build</span> <span class="p">-</span><span class="n">-release</span> <span class="c"># build project for release (build + optimisations)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-1-3" name="__codelineno-1-3"></a><span class="n">cargo</span> <span class="n">run</span> <span class="c"># executes the built executable</span>
<a id="__codelineno-1-4" name="__codelineno-1-4"></a><span class="n">cargo</span> <span class="n">check</span> <span class="c"># verifies buildability without producing an executable</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h2 id="dependencies">Dependencies</h2>
<p>In <code>Cargo.toml</code>:</p>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">TOML</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-2-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-2-2">2</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-2-1" name="__codelineno-2-1"></a><span class="k">[dependencies]</span>
<a id="__codelineno-2-2" name="__codelineno-2-2"></a><span class="n">crate_name</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">=</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="s2">&quot;&lt;version_number&gt;&quot;</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h2 id="code-organization">Code Organization</h2>
<p>Rust has a number of features that allow to manage the code's organization, including which details are exposed, which details are private, and what names are in each scope in the programs.</p>
<p>These features, sometimes collectively referred to as the module system, include:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Packages</strong>: A Cargo feature that allows to build, test, and share crates</li>
<li><strong>Crates</strong>: A tree of modules that produces a library or executable</li>
<li><strong>Modules</strong> and <code>use</code>: Allow to control the organization, scope, and privacy of paths</li>
<li><strong>Paths</strong>: A way of naming an item, such as a struct, function, or module</li>
</ul>
<h3 id="packages-crates">Packages &amp; Crates</h3>
<p>A crate is a binary or library. The crate root is a source file that the Rust compiler starts from and makes up the root module of he crate.<br />
A package is one or more crates that provide a set of functionality. A package contains a <code>Cargo.toml</code> file that describes how to build those crates.</p>
<p>Several rules determine what a package can contain. A package must contain <code>zero</code> or <code>one</code> <strong>library crates</strong> (<code>lib</code> ?), and no more.<br />
It can contain as many <code>binary</code> crates as you'd like, but it must contain at least one crate (either library or binary).</p>
<p>If a package contains <code>src/main.rs</code> and <code>src/lib.rs</code>, it has two crates: a library and a binary, both with the same name as the package.<br />
A package can have multiple binary crates by placing files in the <code>src/bin</code> directory: each file will be a separate binary crate.</p>
<p>A crate will group related functionality together in a scope so the functionality is easy to share between multiple projects.</p>
<p>Cargo follows a convention that <code>src/main.rs</code> is the crate root of a binary crate with the same name as the package.<br />
Likewise, Cargo knows that if the package directory contains <code>src/lib.rs</code>, the package contains a library crate with the same name as the package, and <code>src/lib.rs</code> is its crate root.</p>
<h3 id="modules">Modules</h3>
<p>Modules allow to organize code within a crate into groups for readability and easy reuse. Modules also control the privacy of items, which is whether an item can be used by outside code (<em>public</em>) or is an internal implementation detail and not available for outside use (<em>private</em>).</p>
<p>Define a module by starting with the <code>mod</code> keyword and then specify the name of the module and place curly brackets around the body of the module.<br />
Inside modules, it's possible to have other modules. Modules can also hold definitions for other items, such as structs, enums, constants, traits, or functions.</p>
<h3 id="paths">Paths</h3>
<p>A path can take two forms:</p>
<ul>
<li>An <strong>absolute path</strong> starts from a crate root by using a crate name or a literal crate.</li>
<li>A <strong>relative path</strong> starts from the current module and uses self, super, or an identifier in the current module.</li>
</ul>
<p>Both absolute and relative paths are followed by one or more identifiers separated by double colons (<code>::</code>).</p>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">Rust</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-3-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-3-2">2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-3-3">3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-3-4">4</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-3-5">5</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-3-1" name="__codelineno-3-1"></a><span class="n">module</span><span class="p">::</span><span class="n">function</span><span class="p">();</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// rel path (same crate)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-3-2" name="__codelineno-3-2"></a><span class="k">super</span><span class="p">::</span><span class="n">function</span><span class="p">();;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// rel path starting in outer module (same crate)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-3-3" name="__codelineno-3-3"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-3-4" name="__codelineno-3-4"></a><span class="k">crate</span><span class="p">::</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="p">::</span><span class="n">function</span><span class="p">();</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// abs path (same crate)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-3-5" name="__codelineno-3-5"></a><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">crate_name</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">::</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="p">::</span><span class="n">function</span><span class="p">();</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// abs path (other crate)</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h3 id="public-vs-private">Public vs Private</h3>
<p>Modules aren’t useful only for organizing the code. They also define Rust’s privacy boundary:<br />
the line that encapsulates the implementation details external code isn’t allowed to know about, call, or rely on.<br />
So, to make an item like a function or struct private, put it in a module.</p>
<p>The way privacy works in Rust is that all items (functions, methods, structs, enums, modules, and constants) are <em>private by default</em>.<br />
Items in a parent module can’t use the private items inside child modules, but items in child modules can use the items in their ancestor modules.<br />
The reason is that child modules wrap and hide their implementation details, but the child modules can see the context in which they’re defined.</p>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">Rust</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-4-1"> 1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-4-2"> 2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-4-3"> 3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-4-4"> 4</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-4-5"> 5</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-4-6"> 6</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-4-7"> 7</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-4-8"> 8</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-4-9"> 9</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-4-10">10</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-4-1" name="__codelineno-4-1"></a><span class="k">mod</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nn">module</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
<a id="__codelineno-4-2" name="__codelineno-4-2"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">fn</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">func</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{}</span>
<a id="__codelineno-4-3" name="__codelineno-4-3"></a><span class="p">}</span>
<a id="__codelineno-4-4" name="__codelineno-4-4"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-4-5" name="__codelineno-4-5"></a><span class="c1">// for a function to be accessible both module and function must be public</span>
<a id="__codelineno-4-6" name="__codelineno-4-6"></a><span class="k">pub</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">mod</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nn">public_module</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{</span>
<a id="__codelineno-4-7" name="__codelineno-4-7"></a><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">pub</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">fn</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">public_func</span><span class="p">()</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="p">{}</span>
<a id="__codelineno-4-8" name="__codelineno-4-8"></a><span class="p">}</span>
<a id="__codelineno-4-9" name="__codelineno-4-9"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-4-10" name="__codelineno-4-10"></a><span class="k">mod</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nn">file_level_module</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// define a module for the whole file (same name as file)</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<p>It's possible to use <code>pub</code> to designate <em>structs</em> and <em>enums</em> as public, but there are a few extra details.<br />
If <code>pub</code> is used before a struct definition, this makes the struct public, but the struct's fields will still be private.<br />
It's possible make each field public or not on a case-by-case basis.</p>
<p>In contrast, if an enum is made public, all of its variants are then public.</p>
<h3 id="use"><code>use</code></h3>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">Rust</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-5-1"> 1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-5-2"> 2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-5-3"> 3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-5-4"> 4</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-5-5"> 5</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-5-6"> 6</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-5-7"> 7</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-5-8"> 8</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-5-9"> 9</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-5-10">10</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-5-11">11</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-5-1" name="__codelineno-5-1"></a><span class="k">use</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">crate_name</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">::</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// import module (abs path, other crate)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-5-2" name="__codelineno-5-2"></a><span class="k">use</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">crate</span><span class="p">::</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// import module (abs path, same crate)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-5-3" name="__codelineno-5-3"></a><span class="k">use</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">::</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// import module (rel path, same crate)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-5-4" name="__codelineno-5-4"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-5-5" name="__codelineno-5-5"></a><span class="k">use</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">crate_name</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">::</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">as</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">alias</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// import module w/ aliases</span>
<a id="__codelineno-5-6" name="__codelineno-5-6"></a><span class="k">pub</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">use</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">crate_name</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">::</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// re-exporting (import and make available to others)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-5-7" name="__codelineno-5-7"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-5-8" name="__codelineno-5-8"></a><span class="k">use</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">crate_name</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">::</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="p">::{</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="n">Item</span><span class="p">};</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// import multiple paths</span>
<a id="__codelineno-5-9" name="__codelineno-5-9"></a><span class="k">pub</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">use</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="o">&lt;</span><span class="n">crate_name</span><span class="o">&gt;</span><span class="p">::</span><span class="n">module</span><span class="p">::</span><span class="o">*</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// import all public items (Glob operator)</span>
<a id="__codelineno-5-10" name="__codelineno-5-10"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-5-11" name="__codelineno-5-11"></a><span class="n">module</span><span class="p">::</span><span class="n">function</span><span class="p">();</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// use func w/ shorter path</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<h2 id="separating-into-multiple-files">Separating into multiple files</h2>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">Text Only</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-2">2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-3">3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-4">4</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-5">5</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-6-6">6</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-6-1" name="__codelineno-6-1"></a>src
<a id="__codelineno-6-2" name="__codelineno-6-2"></a>|_main.rs --&gt; default executable file
<a id="__codelineno-6-3" name="__codelineno-6-3"></a>|_lib.rs --&gt; default library file
<a id="__codelineno-6-4" name="__codelineno-6-4"></a>|__module
<a id="__codelineno-6-5" name="__codelineno-6-5"></a>| |_mod.rs --&gt; export submodules
<a id="__codelineno-6-6" name="__codelineno-6-6"></a>| |_submodule.rs --&gt; submodule
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
<div class="highlight"><table class="highlighttable"><tr><th colspan="2" class="filename"><span class="filename">Rust</span></th></tr><tr><td class="linenos"><div class="linenodiv"><pre><span></span><span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-7-1">1</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-7-2">2</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-7-3">3</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-7-4">4</a></span>
<span class="normal"><a href="#__codelineno-7-5">5</a></span></pre></div></td><td class="code"><div><pre><span></span><code><a id="__codelineno-7-1" name="__codelineno-7-1"></a><span class="c1">// main.rs</span>
<a id="__codelineno-7-2" name="__codelineno-7-2"></a><span class="k">mod</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nn">module</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// declare module directory as a module</span>
<a id="__codelineno-7-3" name="__codelineno-7-3"></a>
<a id="__codelineno-7-4" name="__codelineno-7-4"></a><span class="c1">// mod.rs</span>
<a id="__codelineno-7-5" name="__codelineno-7-5"></a><span class="k">pub</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="k">mod</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nn">sub_module</span><span class="p">;</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1">// declare sub_module file as a module</span>
</code></pre></div></td></tr></table></div>
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